Tugas Ekonomi Koperasi

Hasil Wawancara Koperasi

Koperasi Cipta Sejahtera

1.Menurut anda, apa Koperasi itu ?
Jawab : 
Koperasi adalah suatu lembaga kemasyarakatan yang umumnya digunakan untuk simpan pinjam dan dibuat dengan asas kekeluargaan, untuk mencapai kepentingan bersama.

2. Apa tujuan Koperasi ini didirikan ?
Jawab :
Untuk mensejahterakan anggotanya dan mendapatkan keuntungan bersama.


3.Kapan Koperasi ini didirikan ?
Jawab :
5 Desember 1991

4. Siapa saja yang boleh bergabung di koperasi ini ?
Jawab :
Para pekerja di PT. Cipta TPI

5. Berapa banyak anggota di koperasi ini ?
Jawab :
700 orang

6. Bagaimana caranya untuk menjadi anggota di Koperasi ini ?
Jawab :
Mendaftarkan diri,dan minimal 2 tahun menjadi Karyawan atau pekerja di kantor tersebut.

7. Berapa banyak Koperasi ini dapat memberikan pinjaman kepada anggotanya?
Jawab :
Maksimal Rp. 2.000.000
8. Apakah ada jaminan pada setiap pinjaman ?
Jawab :
Tidak, karena koperasi ini menerapkan sistem kepercayaan

9. Berapa simpanan pokok di Koperasi ini ?
jawab :
Rp.250.000

10. Berapa simpanan wajib di Koperasi ini ?
Jawab :
Rp.10.000

11. Fasilitas apa saja yang terdapat di Koperasi tersebut ?
Jawab :
Toko credit, Pinjaman dll.

12. Berapa suku bunga yang dikenakan kepada setiap anggota koperasi ?
Jawab :
2%

13. Apakah pada setiap akhir periode, Pinjaman mendapatkan hasil/laba dari pinjaman itu ?
jawab :
Iya, Mendapatkan.Karena hasil/laba itu didapat dari bunga yang telah ditentukan, lalu sebagian dari bunga tersebut dimasukkan kedalam buku tabungan sebagai simpanan pokok yang biasanya pada akhir periode akan diberikan kepada peminjam.

Bab 4. Tujuan & Fungsi Koperasi

1. Pengertian Badan Usaha

Badan usaha adalah kesatuan yuridis (hukum), teknis, dan ekonomis yang bertujuan mencari laba atau keuntungan. Badan Usaha seringkali disamakan dengan perusahaan, walaupun pada kenyataannya berbeda. Perbedaan utamanya, Badan Usaha adalah lembaga sementara perusahaan adalah tempat dimana Badan Usaha itu mengelola faktor – faktor produksi.

 2. Koperasi Sebagai Badan Usaha

Koperasi adalah badan usaha (UU No.25 tahun 1992). Sebagai badan usaha, koperasi tetap tunduk terhadap kaidah-kaidah perusahaan dan prinsip –prinsip ekonomi yang berlaku. Dengan mengacu pada konsepsi system yang bekerja pada suatu badan usaha, maka koperasi sebagai badan usaha juga bearti merupakan kombinasi dari manusia, asset-aset fisik dan non fisik, informasi, dan teknologi.

Ciri utama koperasi yang membedakannya dengan badan usaha lainnya (non koperasi) adalah posisi anggota. Dalam UU No. 25 tahun 1992 tentang perkoperasian disebutkan  bahwa, anggota koperasi adalah pemilik dan sekaligus pengguna jasa koperasi.

 3. Tujuan dan Nilai Koperasi

Memaksimumkan keuntugan (Maximize profit)

Memaksimumkan nilai perusahaan (Maximize the value of the firm)

Memaksimumkan biaya (minimize profit)

4. Mendefinisikan Tujuan Perusahaan Koperasi

Tujuan koperasi sebagai perusahaan atau badan usaha tidaklah semata-semata hanya  pada orientasi laba (profit oriented), melainkan juga pada orientasi manfaat  (benefit oriented). Karena itu, dalam banyak kasus koperasi, nmanajemen koperasi tidak mengejar keuntungan sebgai tujuan perusahaan karena mereka bekerja didasari dengan pelayanan (service at cost). Untuk koperasi diindonesia, tujuan badan usaha koperasi adaalah memajukan kesejahteraan anggota pada khususnya dan masyarakat pada umumnya (UU No. 25/1992 pasal 3).

5. Keterbatasan Teori Perusahaan

Adanya kesulitan menentukan apakah manajemen suatu perusahaan memaksimumkan nilai perusahaan atau hanya memuaskan pemiliknya sembari mencari tujuan lainnya.

Biaya dan manfaat dari setiap tindakan harus dipertimbangkan sebelum keputusan diambil.

Kritikan atas tanggung jawab sosial.

6. Teori Laba

Dalam perusahaan koperasi laba disebut Sisa Hasil Usaha (SHU). Menurut teori laba, tingkat keuntungan pada setiap perusahaan biasanya berbeda pada setiap jenis industry. Terdapat beberapa teori yang menerangkan perbedaan ini sebagai berikut.

Teori Laba Menanggung Resiko (Risk- Bearing Theory Of profit). Menurut Teori ini, keuntungan ekonomi diatas normall akan doperoleh perusahaan dengan resiko diatas rata-rata.

Teori Laba Frisional (frictional Theory Of Profit). Teori ini menekankan bahwa keuntungan menigkat sebagai suatu hasil ari friksi keseimbangan jagka panjang (long run equilibrium).

Teori Laba Monopoli (Monopoly Theory Of Profits). Teori ini mengatakan bahwa beberapa perusahaan dengan kekuatan monopoli dap[at membatasi output dan menekankan harga ang lebih tinggi daripada bila perusahaan beroperasi dalam kondisi persaingan sempurna. Kekuatan monopoli ini dapat diperoleh melalui Penguasaan penuh atas supply bahan baku tertentu, skala ekonomi, kepemilikan hak paten, pembatasan dari pemerintah.

7. Fungsi Laba

Laba yang tinggi adalah pertanda bahwa konsumen menginginkan output yang lebih dari industri. Sebaliknya laba yang rendah atau rugi adalah pertanda bahwa konsumen menginginkan kurang dari produk yang ditangani, laba memberikan pertanda krusial untuk realokasi sumber daya yang dimiliki masyarakat. Profit bukanlah satu-satunya yang di kejar oleh manajemen, melainkan juga aspek pelayanan. Fungsi laba bagi koperasi tergantung pada besar kecilnya pada besar kecilnya partisipasi ataupun transaksi anggota dengan koperasinya.

 8. Kegiatan Usaha Koperasi

Dalam fungsinya sebagai badan usaha, maka koperasi tetap tunduk pada prinsip ekonomi perusahaan dan prinsip-prinsip dasr koperasi. Khusus yang menyangkut aspek perkoperasian, ada aspek dasar yang menjadi pertimbangan untuk mencapai tujuan koperasi sebagai badan usaha yaitu

Status dan Motif anggota koperasi

Anggota koperasi adalah orang-orang atau badan hukum koperasi yang mempunyai kepentingaan ekonomi yang sama sebagai pemilik dan sekaligus pengguna jasa, berpartisipasi aktif untuk memngaembangkan usaha koperasi serta terdaftar dalam buku daftar anggota. Status anggota koperasi sebagia badan usaha adalah sebagia pemilik (owner) dan sebagai pemakai (users).

Kegiatan usaha

Pada awalnya, koperasi dibentuk oleh beberapa orang untuk memenuhi kebutuhan ekonomi mereka.

Permodalan koperasi

Modal adalah sejumlah harga (uang/barang) yang dipergunakan untuk menjalankan usaha, modal berupa uang tunai, barang dagangan bangunan dan lain sebagainya.

Modal koperasi dibituhkan untuk membiayai usaha dan organisasi koperasi. Modal usaha terdiri :

· Modal investasi adalah sejumlah uang yang ditana,m atau dipergunakan untuk pengadaan sarana operasional suatu perusahaan yang bersifat tidak mudah diuangkan (unliquid).

· Modal kerja adalah sejumlah uang yang tertanan di aktifa lancar perusahaan atau yang digunakanuntuk membiyayai operasi jangka pendek perusahaan

SHU koperasi

Untuk melengkapi tulisan koperasi sebagai badan usaha , maka topik yang tidak kalah pentingnya untuk diuraikan adalah cara membagi shu kepada anggota.

Sumber : http://p4hrul.wordpress.com/2012/01/09/tujuan-dan-fungsi-koperasi/

BAB 3 Organisasi dan Manajemen

Bentuk Organisasi

Menurut Hanel :

• Suatu sistem sosial ekonomi atau sosial tehnik yang terbuka dan berorientasi pada tujuan

• Sub sistem koperasi :

individu (pemilik dan konsumen akhir)

Pengusaha Perorangan/kelompok ( pemasok /supplier)

Badan Usaha yang melayani anggota dan masyarakat

Menurut Ropke :

     •   Identifikasi Ciri Khusus

Kumpulan sejumlah individu dengan tujuan yang sama (kelompok koperasi)

Kelompok usaha untuk perbaikan kondisi sosial ekonomi (swadaya kelompok koperasi)

Pemanfaatan koperasi secara bersama oleh anggota (perusahaan koperasi)

Koperasi bertugas untuk menunjang kebutuhan para anggotanya (penyediaan barang dan jasa)

• Sub sistem

Anggota Koperasi

Badan Usaha Koperasi

Organisasi Koperasi

Di Indonesia :

• Bentuk : Rapat Anggota, Pengurus, Pengelola dan Pengawas

• Rapat Anggota,

• Wadah anggota untuk mengambil keputusan

• Pemegang Kekuasaan Tertinggi, dengan tugas :

Penetapan Anggaran Dasar

Kebijaksanaan Umum (manajemen, organisasi & usaha koperasi)

Pemilihan, pengangkatan & pemberhentian pengurus

Rencana Kerja, Rencana Budget dan Pendapatan sertapengesahan Laporan Keuangan

Pengesahan pertanggung jawaban

Pembagian SHU

Penggabungan, pendirian dan peleburan

   2.     Hirarki Tanggung Jawab

Pengurus

Tugas

Mengelola koperasi dan usahanya

Mengajukan rancangan Rencana kerja, budget dan belanja koperasi

Menyelenggaran Rapat Anggota

Mengajukan laporan keuangan & pertanggung jawaban

Maintenance daftar anggota dan pengurus

Wewenang

Mewakili koperasi di dalam & luar pengadilan

Meningkatkan peran koperasi

Pengawas

Perangkat organisasi yang dipilih dari anggota dan diberi mandat untuk melakukan pengawasan terhadap jalannya organisasi & usaha koperasi

UU 25 Th. 1992 pasal 39 :

Bertugas untuk melakukan pengawasan kebijakan dan pengelolaan koperasi

Berwenang untuk meneliti catatan yang ada & mendapatkan segala keterangan yang diperlukan

Pengelola

Karyawan / Pegawai yang diberikan kuasa & wewenang oleh pengurus

Untuk mengembangkan usaha dengan efisien & professional.

   3.     Pola Manajemen

Definisi Paul Hubert Casselman dalam bukunya berjudul “ The Cooperative Movement and some of its Problems” yang mengatakan bahwa : “Cooperation is an economic system with social content”. Artinya koperasi harus bekerja menurut prinsip-prinsip ekonomi dengan melandaskan pada azas-azas koperasi yang mengandung unsur-unsur sosial di dalamnya. Unsur sosial yang terkandung dalam prinsip koperasi lebih menekankan kepada hubungan antar anggota, hubungan anggota dengan pengurus, tentang hak suara, cara pembagian dari sisa hasil usaha dan sebagainya seperti yang dapat kita lihat dalam:
•         Kesamaan derajat yang diwujudkan dalam “one man one vote” dan “no voting by proxy”.
•         Kesukarelaan dalam keanggotaan
•         Menolong diri sendiri (self help)
•         Persaudaraan/kekeluargaan (fraternity and unity)
•         Demokrasi yang terlihat dan diwujudkan dalam cara pengelolaan dan pengawasan yang dilakukan oleh anggota.
•         Pembagian sisa hasil usaha proporsional dengan jasa-jasanya.
Definisi Manajemen menurut Stoner adalah suatu proses perencanaan, pengorganisasian, pengarahan, dan pengawasan usaha-usaha para anggota organisasi dan penggunaan sumberdaya-sumberdaya organisasi lainnya agar mencapai tujuan organisasi yang telah ditetapkan.
Menurut Prof. Ewell Paul Roy, Ph.D mengatakan bahwa manajemen koperasi melibatkan 4 unsur (perangkat) yaitu:
•         Anggota
•         Pengurus
•         Manajer
•         Karyawan merupakan penghubung antara manajemen dan anggota pelanggan
Sedangkan menurut UU No. 25/1992 yang termasuk Perangkat Organisasi Koperasi adalah:
•         Rapat anggota.
•         Pengurus.
•         Pengawas
Rapat Anggota
Koperasi merupakan kumpulan orang atau badan hukum koperasi. Koperasi dimiliki oleh anggota, dijalankan oleh anggota dan bekerja untuk kesejahteraan anggota dan masyarakat. Rapat anggota adalah tempat di mana suara-suara anggota berkumpul dan hanya diadakan pada waktu-waktu tertentu. Setiap anggota koperasi mempunyai hak dan kewajiban yang sama. Seorang anggota berhak menghadiri rapat anggota dan memberikan suara dalam rapat anggota serta mengemukakan pendapat dan saran kepada pengurus baaik di luar maupun di dalam rapat anggota. Anggota juga harus ikut serta mengadakan pengawasan atas jalannya organisasi dan usaha koperasi. Anggota secara keseluruhan menjalankan manajemen dalam suatu rapat anggota dengan menetapkan:
•         Anggaran dasar
•         Kebijaksanaan umum serta pelaksanaan keputusan koperasi
•         Pemilihan/pengangkatan/pemberhentian pengurus dan pengawas
•         Rencana kerja, pertanggungjawaban pengurus dalam pelaksanaan tugasnya
•         Pembagian SHU
•         Penggabungan, peleburan, pembagian dan pembubaran koperasi.
Pengurus Koperasi
Pengurus koperasi adalah orang-orang yang bekerja di garis depan, mereka adalah otak dari gerakan koperasi dan merupakan salah satu faktor yang menentukan berhasil tidaknya suatu koperasi. Tugas dan kewajiban pengurus koperasi adalah memimpin organisasi dan usaha koperasi serta mewakilinya di muka dan di luar pengadilan sesuai dengan keputusan-keputusan rapat anggota.
Menurut Leon Garayon dan Paul O. Mohn dalam bukunya “The Board of Directions of Cooperatives” fungsi pengurus adalah:
•         Pusat pengambil keputusan tertinggi
•         Pemberi nasihat
•         Pengawas atau orang yang dapat dipercaya
•         Penjaga berkesinambungannya organisasi
•         Simbol
Pengawas
Tugas pengawas adalah melakukan pemeriksaan terhadap tata kehidupan koperasi, termasuk organisasi, usaha-usaha dan pelaksanaan kebijaksanaan pengurus, serta membuat laporan tertulis tentang pemeriksaan. Pengawas bertindak sebagai orang-orang kepercayaan anggota dalam menjaga harta kekayaan anggota dalam koperasi. Syarat-syarat menjadi pengawas yaitu:
mempunyai kemampuan berusahan. mempunyai sifat sebagai pemimpin, yang disegani anggota koperasi dan masyarakat sekelilingnya. Dihargai pendapatnya, diperhatikan saran-sarannya dan iindahkan nasihat-nasihatnya.
Seorang anggota pengawas harus berani mengemukakan pendapatnya.
-          Rajin bekerja, semangat dan lincah.
-          pengurus sulit diharapkan untuk bekerja full time.
-          Pengurus mempunyai tugas penting yaitu memimpin organisasi sebagai keseluruhan.
-          Tugas manajer tidak dapat dilaksanakan sebagai tugas sambilan tapi harus dilaksanakan dengan penuh ketekunan.
Manajer
Peranan manajer adalah membuat rencana ke depan sesuai dengan ruang lingkup dan wewenangnya; mengelola sumberdaya secara efisien, memberikan perintah, bertindak sebagai pemimpin dan mampu melaksanakan kerjasama dengan orang lain untuk mencapai tujuan organisasi (to get things done by working with and through people).
Pendekatan Sistem pada Koperasi
Menurut Draheim koperasi mempunyai sifat ganda yaitu:
•         organisasi dari orang-orang dengan unsur eksternal ekonomi dan sifat-sifat sosial (pendekatan sosiologi).
•         perusahaan biasa yang harus dikelola sebagai layaknya perusahaan biasa dalam ekonomi pasar (pendekatan neo klasik).

Sumber : http://litaciiechamenddh.blogspot.com/2011/10/bab-3-organisasi-dan-manajemen.html

 BAB 3 Organisasi dan Manajemen

Bentuk Organisasi

Menurut Hanel :

• Suatu sistem sosial ekonomi atau sosial tehnik yang terbuka dan berorientasi pada tujuan

• Sub sistem koperasi :

individu (pemilik dan konsumen akhir)

Pengusaha Perorangan/kelompok ( pemasok /supplier)

Badan Usaha yang melayani anggota dan masyarakat

Menurut Ropke :

     •   Identifikasi Ciri Khusus

Kumpulan sejumlah individu dengan tujuan yang sama (kelompok koperasi)

Kelompok usaha untuk perbaikan kondisi sosial ekonomi (swadaya kelompok koperasi)

Pemanfaatan koperasi secara bersama oleh anggota (perusahaan koperasi)

Koperasi bertugas untuk menunjang kebutuhan para anggotanya (penyediaan barang dan jasa)

• Sub sistem

Anggota Koperasi

Badan Usaha Koperasi

Organisasi Koperasi

Di Indonesia :

• Bentuk : Rapat Anggota, Pengurus, Pengelola dan Pengawas

• Rapat Anggota,

• Wadah anggota untuk mengambil keputusan

• Pemegang Kekuasaan Tertinggi, dengan tugas :

Penetapan Anggaran Dasar

Kebijaksanaan Umum (manajemen, organisasi & usaha koperasi)

Pemilihan, pengangkatan & pemberhentian pengurus

Rencana Kerja, Rencana Budget dan Pendapatan sertapengesahan Laporan Keuangan

Pengesahan pertanggung jawaban

Pembagian SHU

Penggabungan, pendirian dan peleburan

   2.     Hirarki Tanggung Jawab

Pengurus

Tugas

Mengelola koperasi dan usahanya

Mengajukan rancangan Rencana kerja, budget dan belanja koperasi

Menyelenggaran Rapat Anggota

Mengajukan laporan keuangan & pertanggung jawaban

Maintenance daftar anggota dan pengurus

Wewenang

Mewakili koperasi di dalam & luar pengadilan

Meningkatkan peran koperasi

Pengawas

Perangkat organisasi yang dipilih dari anggota dan diberi mandat untuk melakukan pengawasan terhadap jalannya organisasi & usaha koperasi

UU 25 Th. 1992 pasal 39 :

Bertugas untuk melakukan pengawasan kebijakan dan pengelolaan koperasi

Berwenang untuk meneliti catatan yang ada & mendapatkan segala keterangan yang diperlukan

Pengelola

Karyawan / Pegawai yang diberikan kuasa & wewenang oleh pengurus

Untuk mengembangkan usaha dengan efisien & professional.

   3.     Pola Manajemen

Definisi Paul Hubert Casselman dalam bukunya berjudul “ The Cooperative Movement and some of its Problems” yang mengatakan bahwa : “Cooperation is an economic system with social content”. Artinya koperasi harus bekerja menurut prinsip-prinsip ekonomi dengan melandaskan pada azas-azas koperasi yang mengandung unsur-unsur sosial di dalamnya. Unsur sosial yang terkandung dalam prinsip koperasi lebih menekankan kepada hubungan antar anggota, hubungan anggota dengan pengurus, tentang hak suara, cara pembagian dari sisa hasil usaha dan sebagainya seperti yang dapat kita lihat dalam:
•         Kesamaan derajat yang diwujudkan dalam “one man one vote” dan “no voting by proxy”.
•         Kesukarelaan dalam keanggotaan
•         Menolong diri sendiri (self help)
•         Persaudaraan/kekeluargaan (fraternity and unity)
•         Demokrasi yang terlihat dan diwujudkan dalam cara pengelolaan dan pengawasan yang dilakukan oleh anggota.
•         Pembagian sisa hasil usaha proporsional dengan jasa-jasanya.
Definisi Manajemen menurut Stoner adalah suatu proses perencanaan, pengorganisasian, pengarahan, dan pengawasan usaha-usaha para anggota organisasi dan penggunaan sumberdaya-sumberdaya organisasi lainnya agar mencapai tujuan organisasi yang telah ditetapkan.
Menurut Prof. Ewell Paul Roy, Ph.D mengatakan bahwa manajemen koperasi melibatkan 4 unsur (perangkat) yaitu:
•         Anggota
•         Pengurus
•         Manajer
•         Karyawan merupakan penghubung antara manajemen dan anggota pelanggan
Sedangkan menurut UU No. 25/1992 yang termasuk Perangkat Organisasi Koperasi adalah:
•         Rapat anggota.
•         Pengurus.
•         Pengawas
Rapat Anggota
Koperasi merupakan kumpulan orang atau badan hukum koperasi. Koperasi dimiliki oleh anggota, dijalankan oleh anggota dan bekerja untuk kesejahteraan anggota dan masyarakat. Rapat anggota adalah tempat di mana suara-suara anggota berkumpul dan hanya diadakan pada waktu-waktu tertentu. Setiap anggota koperasi mempunyai hak dan kewajiban yang sama. Seorang anggota berhak menghadiri rapat anggota dan memberikan suara dalam rapat anggota serta mengemukakan pendapat dan saran kepada pengurus baaik di luar maupun di dalam rapat anggota. Anggota juga harus ikut serta mengadakan pengawasan atas jalannya organisasi dan usaha koperasi. Anggota secara keseluruhan menjalankan manajemen dalam suatu rapat anggota dengan menetapkan:
•         Anggaran dasar
•         Kebijaksanaan umum serta pelaksanaan keputusan koperasi
•         Pemilihan/pengangkatan/pemberhentian pengurus dan pengawas
•         Rencana kerja, pertanggungjawaban pengurus dalam pelaksanaan tugasnya
•         Pembagian SHU
•         Penggabungan, peleburan, pembagian dan pembubaran koperasi.
Pengurus Koperasi
Pengurus koperasi adalah orang-orang yang bekerja di garis depan, mereka adalah otak dari gerakan koperasi dan merupakan salah satu faktor yang menentukan berhasil tidaknya suatu koperasi. Tugas dan kewajiban pengurus koperasi adalah memimpin organisasi dan usaha koperasi serta mewakilinya di muka dan di luar pengadilan sesuai dengan keputusan-keputusan rapat anggota.
Menurut Leon Garayon dan Paul O. Mohn dalam bukunya “The Board of Directions of Cooperatives” fungsi pengurus adalah:
•         Pusat pengambil keputusan tertinggi
•         Pemberi nasihat
•         Pengawas atau orang yang dapat dipercaya
•         Penjaga berkesinambungannya organisasi
•         Simbol
Pengawas
Tugas pengawas adalah melakukan pemeriksaan terhadap tata kehidupan koperasi, termasuk organisasi, usaha-usaha dan pelaksanaan kebijaksanaan pengurus, serta membuat laporan tertulis tentang pemeriksaan. Pengawas bertindak sebagai orang-orang kepercayaan anggota dalam menjaga harta kekayaan anggota dalam koperasi. Syarat-syarat menjadi pengawas yaitu:
mempunyai kemampuan berusahan. mempunyai sifat sebagai pemimpin, yang disegani anggota koperasi dan masyarakat sekelilingnya. Dihargai pendapatnya, diperhatikan saran-sarannya dan iindahkan nasihat-nasihatnya.
Seorang anggota pengawas harus berani mengemukakan pendapatnya.
-          Rajin bekerja, semangat dan lincah.
-          pengurus sulit diharapkan untuk bekerja full time.
-          Pengurus mempunyai tugas penting yaitu memimpin organisasi sebagai keseluruhan.
-          Tugas manajer tidak dapat dilaksanakan sebagai tugas sambilan tapi harus dilaksanakan dengan penuh ketekunan.
Manajer
Peranan manajer adalah membuat rencana ke depan sesuai dengan ruang lingkup dan wewenangnya; mengelola sumberdaya secara efisien, memberikan perintah, bertindak sebagai pemimpin dan mampu melaksanakan kerjasama dengan orang lain untuk mencapai tujuan organisasi (to get things done by working with and through people).
Pendekatan Sistem pada Koperasi
Menurut Draheim koperasi mempunyai sifat ganda yaitu:
•         organisasi dari orang-orang dengan unsur eksternal ekonomi dan sifat-sifat sosial (pendekatan sosiologi).
•         perusahaan biasa yang harus dikelola sebagai layaknya perusahaan biasa dalam ekonomi pasar (pendekatan neo klasik).

Sumber : http://litaciiechamenddh.blogspot.com/2011/10/bab-3-organisasi-dan-manajemen.html

BAB 2. Pengertian & Prinsip - Prinsip Koperasi

A. Pengertian koperasi

Koperasi adalah badan usaha yang beranggotakan orang-orang atau badan hokum koperasi dengan melandaskan kegiatannya berdasarkan prinsip koperasi sekaligus sebagai gerakan ekonomi rakyat yang berdasarkan asas kekeluargaan.
Berdasarkan pengertian tersebut, yang dapat menjadi anggota koperasi yaitu :
1. Perorangan, yaitu orang yang sukarela menjadi anggota koperasi.
2. Badan hokum koperasi, yaitu suatu koperasi yang menjadi anggota koperasi yang memiliki lingkup lebih luas.
· Definisi ILO (International Labour Organization)
Dalam definisi ILO terdapat 6 elemen yang dikandung dalam koperasi, yaitu :
- Koperasi adalah perkumpulan orang – orang
- Penggabungan orang – orang berdasarkan kesukarelaan
- Terdapat tujuan ekonomi yang ingin dicapai
- Koperasi berbentuk organisasi bisnis yang diawasi dan dikendalikan secara demokratis
- Terdapat konstribusi yang adil terhadap modal yang dibutuhkan
- Anggota koperasi menerima resiko dan manfaat secara seimbang

· Definisi Chaniago (Arifinal Chaniago / 1984)
Koperasi sebagai suatu perkumpulan yang beranggotakan orang – orang atau badan hokum, yang memberikan kebebasan kepada anggota untuk masuk dan keluar, denganbekerja sama secara kekeluargaan menjalankan usaha untuk mempertinggi kesejahteraan jasmaniah para anggotanya.
· Definisi Dooren
Sudah memperluas pengertian koperasi, dimana koperasi tidaklah hanya kumpulan orang – orang, akan tetapi juga merupakan kumpulan dari badan – badan hokum.
· Definisi Hatta
Adalah usaha bersama untuk memperbaiki nasib penghidupan ekonomi berdasarkan tolong – menolong , semangat tolong menolong tersebut didorong oleh keinginan member jasa kepada kawan berdasarkan seorang buat semua dan semua buat orang.
· Definisi Munkner
Koperasi sebagai organisasi tolong menolong yang menjalankan “urusniaga” secara kumpulan, yang berazaskan konsep tolong – menolong. Aktivitas dalam urus niaga semata – mata bertujuan ekonomi, bukan social seperti yang dikandung gotong – royong.
· Definisi UU No. 25 / 1992
Koperasi adalah badan usaha yang beranggotakan orang – seorang atau badan hokum koperasi, dengan melandaskan kegiatannya berdasarkan prinsip koperasi sekaligus sebagai gerakan ekonomi rakyat yang berdasar atas azas kekeluargaan

B. Tujuan Koperasi
Untuk menyejahteraan anggotanya. Tujuan utama adalah mewujudkan masyarakat adil makmur materian dan spiritual berdasarkan pancasila dan undang – undang Dasar 1945.

C. Prinsip – Prinsip koperasi
· Prinsip Munkner
- Keanggotaan bersifat sukarela
- Keanggotaan terbuka
- Pengembangan anggota
- Identitas sebagai pemilik dan pelanggan
- Manajemen dan pengawasan dilaksanakan secara demokratis
- Koperasi sebagai kumpulan orang – orang
- Modal yang berkaitan dengan aspek social tidak dibagi
- Efisiensi ekonomi dari perusahaan koperasi
- Perkumpulan dengan sukarela
- Kebebasan dalam pengambilan keputusan dan penetapan tujuan
- Pendistribusian yang adil dan merata akan hasil-hasil ekonomi
- Pendidikan anggota
· Prinsip Rochdale
- Pengawasan secara demokratis
- Keanggotaan yang terbuka
- Bunga atas modal dibatasi
- Pembagian SHU kepada nggota sebanding dengan jasa masing – masing anggota
- Penjualan sepenuhnya dengan tunai
- Barang – barang yang dijual harus asli dan tidak dipalsukan
- Menyelenggarakan pendidikan kepada anggota dengan prinsip – prinsip anggota
- Netral terhadap politik dan agama.
· Prinsip Raiffeisen
- Swadaya
- Daerah kerja terbatas
- SHU untuk cadangan
- Tanggung jawab anggota tidak terbatas
- Pengurus bekerja atas dasar kesukarelaan
- Usaha hanya kepada anggota
- Keanggotaan atas dasar watak, bukan uang.
· Prinsip Schulze
- Swadaya
- Daerah kerja tak terbatas
- SHU untuk cadangan dan untuk dibagikan kepada anggota
- Tanggung jawab anggota terbatas
- Pengurus bekerja dengan mendapat imbalan
- Usaha tidak terbatas tidak hanya untuk anggota.
· Prinsip ICA
- Keanggotaan koperasi secara terbuka tanpa adanya pembatasan yang dibuat buat.
- Kepemimpinan yang demokratis atas dasar satu orang satu suara
- Modal menerima bunga yang terbatas (bila ada)
- SHU dibagi 3 : cadangan, masyarakat, ke anggota sesuai dengan jasa masing-masing
- Semua koperasi harus melaksanakan pendidikan secara terus menerus
- Gerakan koperasi harus melaksanakan kerjasama yang erat . baik ditingkat regional, nasional maupun internasional.
· Prinsip prinsip koperasi di Indonesia
Prinsip koperasi adalah suatu system ide ide abstrak yang merupakan petunjuk untuk membangun koperasi yang efektif dan tahan lama. Prinsip koperasi terbaru yang dikembangkan International Cooperative Alliance (Federasi koperasi non-pemerintah internasional) adalah keanggotaan yang bersifat terbuka dan sukarela, pengelolaan yang demokratis, partisipasi anggota dalam (ekonomi), kebebasan dan otonomi, serta pengembangan pendidikan, pelatihan, dan informasi.

Sumber : http://rezasuryatman1111.wordpress.com/2012/01/05/bab-2-pengertian-dan-prinsip-prinsip-koperasi/

Kursus Piano murah dan Berkualitas di daerah Bandung

Daftar Harga

Dijamin Anda pasti suka :)

How Linux boots

    As it turns out, there isn't much to the boot process

   1. A boot loader finds the kernel image on the disk, loads it into memory, and starts it.

   2. The kernel initializes the devices and its drivers.

   3. The kernel mounts the root filesystem.

   4. The kernel starts a program called init.

   5. init sets the rest of the processes in motion.

   6. The last processes that init starts as part of the boot sequence allow you to log in.

Identifying each stage of the boot process is invaluable in fixing boot problems and understanding the system as a whole. To start, zero in on the boot loader, which is the initial screen or prompt you get after the computer does its power-on self-test, asking which operating system to run. After you make a choice, the boot loader runs the Linux kernel, handing control of the system to the kernel.

There is a detailed discussion of the kernel elsewhere in this book from which this article is excerpted. This article covers the kernel initialization stage, the stage when the kernel prints a bunch of messages about the hardware present on the system. The kernel starts init just after it displays a message proclaiming that the kernel has mounted the root filesystem

VFS Mounted root (ext2 filesystem) readonly.

Soon after, you will see a message about init starting, followed by system service startup messages, and finally you get a login prompt of some sort.

NOTE On Red Hat Linux, the init note is especially obvious, because it welcomes you to Red Hat Linux. All messages thereafter show success or failure in brackets at the right-hand side of the screen.

Most of this chapter deals with init, because it is the part of the boot sequence where you have the most control.

init

There is nothing special about init. It is a program just like any other on the Linux system, and you'll find it in sbin along with other system binaries. The main purpose of init is to start and stop other programs in a particular sequence. All you have to know is how this sequence works.

There are a few different variations, but most Linux distributions use the System V style discussed here. Some distributions use a simpler version that resembles the BSD init, but you are unlikely to encounter this.

Runlevels

At any given time on a Linux system, a certain base set of processes is running. This state of the machine is called its runlevel, and it is denoted with a number from 0 through 6. The system spends most of its time in a single runlevel. However, when you shut the machine down, init switches to a different runlevel in order to terminate the system services in an orderly fashion and to tell the kernel to stop. Yet another runlevel is for single-user mode, discussed later.

The easiest way to get a handle on runlevels is to examine the init configuration file, etcinittab. Look for a line like the following

id5initdefault

This line means that the default runlevel on the system is 5. All lines in the inittab file take this form, with four fields separated by colons occurring in the following order

# A unique identifier (a short string, such as id in the preceding example)

# The applicable runlevel number(s)

# The action that init should take (in the preceding example, the action is to set the default runlevel to 5)

# A command to execute (optional)

There is no command to execute in the preceding initdefault example because a command doesn't make sense in the context of setting the default runlevel. Look a little further down in inittab, until you see a line like this

l55waitetcrc.drc 5

This line triggers most of the system configuration and services through the rc.d and init.d directories. You can see that init is set to execute a command called etcrc.drc 5 when in runlevel 5. The wait action tells when and how init runs the command run rc 5 once when entering runlevel 5, and then wait for this command to finish before doing anything else.

There are several different actions in addition to initdefault and wait, especially pertaining to power management, and the inittab(5) manual page tells you all about them. The ones that you're most likely to encounter are explained in the following sections.

respawn

The respawn action causes init to run the command that follows, and if the command finishes executing, to run it again. You're likely to see something similar to this line in your inittab file

12345respawnsbinmingetty tty1

The getty programs provide login prompts. The preceding line is for the first virtual console (devtty1), the one you see when you press ALT-F1 or CONTROL-ALT-F1. The respawn action brings the login prompt back after you log out.

ctrlaltdel

The ctrlaltdel action controls what the system does when you press CONTROL-ALT-DELETE on a virtual console. On most systems, this is some sort of reboot command using the shutdown command.

sysinit

The sysinit action is the very first thing that init should run when it starts up, before entering any runlevels.

How processes in runlevels start

You are now ready to learn how init starts the system services, just before it lets you log in. Recall this inittab line from earlier

l55waitetcrc.drc 5

This small line triggers many other programs. rc stands for run commands, and you will hear people refer to the commands as scripts, programs, or services. So, where are these commands, anyway

For runlevel 5, in this example, the commands are probably either in etcrc.drc5.d or etcrc5.d. Runlevel 1 uses rc1.d, runlevel 2 uses rc2.d, and so on. You might find the following items in the rc5.d directory

S10sysklogd       S20ppp          S99gpm

S12kerneld        S25netstd_nfs   S99httpd

S15netstd_init    S30netstd_misc  S99rmnologin

S18netbase        S45pcmcia       S99sshd

S20acct           S89atd

S20logoutd        S89cron

The rc 5 command starts programs in this runlevel directory by running the following commands

S10sysklogd start

S12kerneld start

S15netstd_init start

S18netbase start

...

S99sshd start

Notice the start argument in each command. The S in a command name means that the command should run in start mode, and the number (00 through 99) determines where in the sequence rc starts the command.

The rc.d commands are usually shell scripts that start programs in sbin or usrsbin. Normally, you can figure out what one of the commands actually does by looking at the script with less or another pager program.

You can start one of these services by hand. For example, if you want to start the httpd Web server program manually, run S99httpd start. Similarly, if you ever need to kill one of the services when the machine is on, you can run the command in the rc.d directory with the stop argument (S99httpd stop, for instance).

Some rc.d directories contain commands that start with K (for kill, or stop mode). In this case, rc runs the command with the stop argument instead of start. You are most likely to encounter K commands in runlevels that shut the system down.

Adding and removing services

If you want to add, delete, or modify services in the rc.d directories, you need to take a closer look at the files inside. A long listing reveals a structure like this

lrwxrwxrwx . . . S10sysklogd - ..init.dsysklogd

lrwxrwxrwx . . . S12kerneld - ..init.dkerneld

lrwxrwxrwx . . . S15netstd_init - ..init.dnetstd_init

lrwxrwxrwx . . . S18netbase - ..init.dnetbase

...

The commands in an rc.d directory are actually symbolic links to files in an init.d directory, usually in etc or etcrc.d. Linux distributions contain these links so that they can use the same startup scripts for all runlevels. This convention is by no means a requirement, but it often makes organization a little easier.

To prevent one of the commands in the init.d directory from running in a particular runlevel, you might think of removing the symbolic link in the appropriate rc.d directory. This does work, but if you make a mistake and ever need to put the link back in place, you might have trouble remembering the exact name of the link. Therefore, you shouldn't remove links in the rc.d directories, but rather, add an underscore (_) to the beginning of the link name like this

mv S99httpd _S99httpd

At boot time, rc ignores _S99httpd because it doesn't start with S or K. Furthermore, the original name is still obvious, and you have quick access to the command if you're in a pinch and need to start it by hand.

To add a service, you must create a script like the others in the init.d directory and then make a symbolic link in the correct rc.d directory. The easiest way to write a script is to examine the scripts already in init.d, make a copy of one that you understand, and modify the copy.

When adding a service, make sure that you choose an appropriate place in the boot sequence to start the service. If the service starts too soon, it may not work, due to a dependency on some other service. For non-essential services, most systems administrators prefer numbers in the 90s, after most of the services that came with the system.

Linux distributions usually come with a command to enable and disable services in the rc.d directories. For example, in Debian, the command is update-rc.d, and in Red Hat Linux, the command is chkconfig. Graphical user interfaces are also available. Using these programs helps keep the startup directories consistent and helps with upgrades.

HINT One of the most common Linux installation problems is an improperly configured XFree86 server that flicks on and off, making the system unusable on console. To stop this behavior, boot into single-user mode and alter your runlevel or runlevel services. Look for something containing xdm, gdm, or kdm in your rc.d directories, or your etcinittab.

Controlling init

Occasionally, you need to give init a little kick to tell it to switch runlevels, to re-read the inittab file, or just to shut down the system. Because init is always the first process on a system, its process ID is always 1.

You can control init with telinit. For example, if you want to switch to runlevel 3, use this command

telinit 3

When switching runlevels, init tries to kill off any processes that aren't in the inittab file for the new runlevel. Therefore, you should be careful about changing runlevels.

When you need to add or remove respawning jobs or make any other change to the inittab file, you must tell init about the change and cause it to re-read the file. Some people use kill -HUP 1 to tell init to do this. This traditional method works on most versions of Unix, as long as you type it correctly. However, you can also run this telinit command

telinit q

You can also use telinit s to switch to single-user mode.

Shutting down

init also controls how the system shuts down and reboots. The proper way to shut down a Linux machine is to use the shutdown command.

There are two basic ways to use shutdown. If you halt the system, it shuts the machine down and keeps it down. To make the machine halt immediately, use this command

shutdown -h now

On most modern machines with reasonably recent versions of Linux, a halt cuts the power to the machine. You can also reboot the machine. For a reboot, use -r instead of -h.

The shutdown process takes several seconds. You should never reset or power off a machine during this stage.

In the preceding example, now is the time to shut down. This argument is mandatory, but there are many ways of specifying it. If you want the machine to go down sometime in the future, one way is to use +n, where n is the number of minutes shutdown should wait before doing its work. For other options, look at the shutdown(8) manual page.

To make the system reboot in 10 minutes, run this command

shutdown -r +10

On Linux, shutdown notifies anyone logged on that the machine is going down, but it does little real work. If you specify a time other than now, shutdown creates a file called etcnologin. When this file is present, the system prohibits logins by anyone except the superuser.

When system shutdown time finally arrives, shutdown tells init to switch to runlevel 0 for a halt and runlevel 6 for a reboot. When init enters runlevel 0 or 6, all of the following takes place, which you can verify by looking at the scripts inside rc0.d and rc6.d

   1. init kills every process that it can (as it would when switching to any other runlevel).

# The initial rc0.drc6.d commands run, locking system files into place and making other preparations for shutdown.

# The next rc0.drc6.d commands unmount all filesystems other than the root.

# Further rc0.drc6.d commands remount the root filesystem read-only.

# Still more rc0.drc6.d commands write all buffered data out to the filesystem with the sync program.

# The final rc0.drc6.d commands tell the kernel to reboot or stop with the reboot, halt, or poweroff program.

The reboot and halt programs behave differently for each runlevel, potentially causing confusion. By default, these programs call shutdown with the -r or -h options, but if the system is already at the halt or reboot runlevel, the programs tell the kernel to shut itself off immediately. If you really want to shut your machine down in a hurry (disregarding any possible damage from a disorderly shutdown), use the -f option.

How Download MP3s from Fanscape

How Download MP3s from Fanscape.com or other Streaming Audio/Video Page

Part1

1- Download “CoCSoft Stream Down” here:

http://www.projectw.org/viewtopic.php?t=40095&highlight=cocsoft+stream

2- Go to Fanscape.com or other Streaming Audio/Video Page (like MTV or VH1) search

for your Artist or Band, and play your song, a pop up will appear, with a

windows player preview, then, right clic on this player, and clic on “properties”

3- Will appear a options,stay in “File” tag, go down to “Location” Select all the link address and copy

4- Go to “CoCSoft Stream Down” program, and clic on “ADD” icon, and paste the link address, that u copied on the page, choose your directory to download, and clic in Ok

5- Now, You are downloading the .ASF File

Part 2

1- When you finished of download the .ASF File, open River Past Audio Converter

Download here: http://www.projectw.org/viewtopic.php?t=24947&highlight=river+past

Note: To extract audio from ASF (Advanced Systems Format) files to MP3 with River Past Audio Converter, you should have DirectX 8.0 or above (9.0 highly recommended), and Windows Media Format 9 runtime installed.

2- Once River Past Audio Converter is installed properly, launch Audio Converter.

3- Add File

Click on the "Add" button on the tool bar. The standard file open dialog appears. Select "Windows Media Video" in its "Files of type" combo box.

Select the file you want to convert and click "Open". The file will be added to the conversion file list.

4- Select output format

Use the "Audio Format" setting panel on the bottom of the window to control the output format. Select "MP3" as the "File Type".

You can change the sample rate, channel (stereo or mono) and bitrate. Audio CD's native format is 44.1 kHz, stereo.

5- Select output directory

Expand the "Output Directory" panel. Use the button to select an output directory.

6- Convert!

Click the "Convert" button on the tool bar.

7- Enjoy!!!

Important Notes:

1- The First part, can be used for VIDEOS file, just try it, I do it icon_lol.gif

2- This Tutorial is not 100% perfect, just do it

3- The final Quality from your Mp3, will sound like streaming Audio, cuz we

extract it from a streaming File(maybe 20 or 32 kb/s).

4- If u think, that I'm in a mistake or I'm a fool, please tell me, I will to

learn

5- if u wanna add something, plz Do it, We gonna appreciate your

colaboration

How do I Test My VirusScan Installation

How do I Test My VirusScan Installation? (Eicar)

Description

After installing VirusScan, you may logically wonder, how do I know if it's working? The answer is a test virus. The EICAR Standard AntiVirus Test File is a combined effort by anti-virus vendors throughout the world to implement one standard by which customers can verify their anti-virus installations.

Solution

To test your installation, copy the following line into its own file, then save the file with the name EICAR.COM. More detailed instructions are found below.

X5O!P%@AP[4\PZX54(P^)7CC)7}$EICAR-STANDARD-ANTIVIRUS-TEST-FILE!$H+H*

The file size will be 68 or 70 bytes.

If VirusScan is running and configured correctly, when you try to save the file, VirusScan will detect the virus. If VirusScan is not running, start it and scan the directory that contains EICAR.COM. When your software scans this file, it will report finding the EICAR test file.

Note that this file is NOT A VIRUS. Delete the file when you have finished testing your installation to avoid alarming unsuspecting

users.

The eicar test virus is available for download from the following website:

http://www.eicar.org/download/eicar.com

Creating Eicar.com

   1. Click on Start.

   2. Select Run.

   3. In the Open box type: notepad

   4. Maximize the window.

   5. Highlight the following on the following line of text:

      X5O!P%@AP[4\PZX54(P^)7CC)7}$EICAR-STANDARD-ANTIVIRUS-TEST-FILE!$H+H*

   6. Right click on the highlighted text and choose 'copy'.

   7. Switch back to Notepad.

   8. Right click anywhere inside of Notepad and select 'paste'.

   9. Click the File menu and select 'save as'.

  10. Change the 'Save as Type' to 'all files'.

  11. Name the file eicar.com.

Delete An undeletable File

Open a Command Prompt window and leave it open.

Close all open programs.

Click Start, Run and enter TASKMGR.EXE

Go to the Processes tab and End Process on Explorer.exe.

Leave Task Manager open.

Go back to the Command Prompt window and change to the directory the AVI (or other undeletable file) is located in.

At the command prompt type DEL <filename> where <filename> is the file you wish to delete.

Go back to Task Manager, click File, New Task and enter EXPLORER.EXE to restart the GUI shell.

Close Task Manager.

Or you can try this

Open Notepad.exe

Click File>Save As..>

locate the folder where ur undeletable file is

Choose 'All files' from the file type box

click once on the file u wanna delete so its name appears in the 'filename' box

put a " at the start and end of the filename

(the filename should have the extension of the undeletable file so it will overwrite it)

click save,

It should ask u to overwrite the existing file, choose yes and u can delete it as normal

Here's a manual way of doing it. I'll take this off once you put into your first post zain.

1. Start

2. Run

3. Type: command

4. To move into a directory type: cd c:\*** (The stars stand for your folder)

5. If you cannot access the folder because it has spaces for example Program Files or Kazaa Lite folder you have to do the following. instead of typing in the full folder name only take the first 6 letters then put a ~ and then 1 without spaces. Example: cd c:\progra~1\kazaal~1

6. Once your in the folder the non-deletable file it in type in dir - a list will come up with everything inside.

7. Now to delete the file type in del ***.bmp, txt, jpg, avi, etc... And if the file name has spaces you would use the special 1st 6 letters followed by a ~ and a 1 rule. Example: if your file name was bad file.bmp you would type once in the specific folder thorugh command, del badfil~1.bmp and your file should be gone. Make sure to type in the correct extension.

Alonso on pole after rain-delayed session - Qualifying

Yuuuhuuuuuuu unbelievable.. Amazing !!  GREAT JOB FERRARI FERNANDO ALONSO !! :D  AAAANNNDD Schumi again .. :)

 2011 British race winner Fernando Alonso finally took pole at Silverstone on Saturday after a qualifying session that took more than two and a half hours to complete. There were still six minutes and 19 seconds of Q2 left when the wet conditions became so bad that FIA race director Charlie Whiting wisely red-flagged the session.

At that stage Sauber’s Sergio Perez was fastest on 1m 59.092s from McLaren’s Lewis Hamilton on 1m 59.581s, then Mercedes’ Nico Rosberg on 2m 00.080s. At 14.25 local time it was announced that Whiting expected the action to resume at 15.00. Finally, as conditions improved, it restarted at seven minutes past the hour.

Everyone went out immediately, and lap times improved every time somebody passed the start/finish line. Hamilton eventually walloped everyone with 1m 54.897s, while Alonso jumped up to ninth on 1m 56.921s even though Vale was yellow after Romain Grosjean spun and beached his Lotus there; the Spaniard bumped Force India’s Paul di Resta out of the top ten, but got away with it because his third sector time was not an improvement on his previous best.

Thus Di Resta was the first to miss out, his 1m 57.009 leaving him 11th ahead of Sauber’s Kamui Kobayashi on 1m 57.071s, Rosberg on 1m 57.108s (after an off at Vale), Toro Rosso’s Daniel Ricciardo on 1m 57.132, Williams’ Bruno Senna on 1m 57.426s, Toro Rosso’s Jean-Eric Vergne on 1m 57.719s and Perez on 1m 57.895s. The unfortunate Mexican was thus the big loser after the resumption, having gambled on sticking with intermediate tyres.

Q3 was all about getting out and staying out, and the times went back and forwards as conditions improved by the lap. First it was Pastor Maldonado fastest for Williams, then Felipe Massa for Ferrari, then Schumacher before Alonso became the first fast man on the Pirelli intermediates. Then it was Massa again, likewise on inters, before Alonso went fastest again with three minutes left.

Mark Webber was very hooked up in his Red Bull, however, and snatched the initiative with 1m 51.793s before an absolutely on-the-limit effort from Alonso settled the issue at 1m 51.746s. Webber’s reply fell two-tenths short, but he will share the front row with the championship leader.

Behind them, Schumacher improved to 1m 52.020s on inters for third ahead of Sebastian Vettel in the second Red Bull on 1m 52.199s. Massa was fifth with 1m 53.065s, from late improver Kimi Raikkonen who managed 1m 53.290s in a Lotus that didn’t have KERS. Maldonado improved to 1m 53.539s and that was just enough to snatch seventh from his Valencia sparring partner Hamilton, who was a disappointed eighth for McLaren on 1m 53.543s.

Nico Hulkenberg took ninth for Force India with 1m 54.382s, while Grosjean was 10th after his Q2 off.

Sensationally, Jenson Button had been the celebrity drop-out in Q1. In intermittent rain that had begun just before the session the 2009 champion had been struggling but found his McLaren had much more grip on a different set of Pirelli intermediates. Unfortunately a faster lap which should have put him into Q2 was frustrated in the final sector when Timo Glock spun his Marussia, Jody Scheckter-style, exiting Club. That brought out the yellows, and ruined Button’s chances.

He thus finished that session 18th on 1m 48.044s. Behind him, Vitaly Petrov was Caterham’s leader this time on 1m 49.027s, with Heikki Kovalainen riding shotgun on 1m 49.477s. Then there was a big gap to Glock on 1m 51.618s, followed by Pedro de la Rosa for HRT on 1m 52.742s, Narain Karthikeyan on 1m 53.040s and Charles Pic on 1m 54.143s.

The grid will be juggled, however, as Kobayashi and Vergne have five and 10-place grid penalties respectively from Valencia, and Hulkenberg and Pic have five-places penalties for gearbox changes.

The full provisional grid will be published by the FIA on Sunday morning.

Anonymity complete GUIDE

  Anonymity complete GUIDE By Theraider & Dangerous R.

Anonymity on the web

[ t a b l e o f c o n t e n t s ]

01 - table of contents
02 - introduction
03 - first tips
04 - about proxies
05 - cookies
06 - ftp transfers
07 - secure transactions
08 - SSL tunelling
09 - anonymity on irc
10 - mail crypto (and pgp usage)
11 - icq privacy
12 - spyware
13 - cleaning tracks
14 - ending words

[ introduction ]
Nowadays, everyone wants privacy on the web, because no matter where you go, someone could be watching you. Someone like your employer, someone trying to hack your system, companies gathering all your info to sell to yet other companies, or even the government, may be on your track while you peacefully surf the web. Thus, anonymity on the web means being able tu use all of its services with no concern about someone snooping on your data.

Your computer being connected to the net has an IP [Internet Protocol] address. If you have a dial-up connection, then your IP changes every time you connect to the internet (this is not always true, though. There are dialup isps, specially for university students, that do have static ips). Cable modems and DSL connections have a static IP, which means that the IP address does not change. One of the goals of getting anonymous is to make sure your ip, either static or dynamic) isn't revealed to other users of the internet, or to server administrators of the servers you roam around when using internet services.

This text tries to give you some hints on how to maintain your anonimity on the web. Some of the hints may sound banal, but think of, if you really abide them in every situation.

[ first tips ]
When chatting on IRC, ICQ, AIM (etc..), do not give out personal information about yourself, where you live, work, etc.
Do not use your primary email address (the one your ISP gave you) anywhere except to family members, close friends or trusted people. Instead create for yourself a web-based email account such as yahoo, hotmail, dynamitemail, mail.com, etc. and use this e-mail address to signing up for services, when in the need to give your mail to download something, or to publish on your homepage.

When signing up for services on the web, don't give your real information like address, phone number and such unless you really need to do so. This is the kind of information that information gathering companies like to get, so that they can sell out and fill your mailbox with spam.

Use an anonymous proxy to surf the web. This makes sure your ip doesn't get stored on the webserver logs. (Webservers log every GET request made, together with date, hour, and IP. This is where the proxy comes in. They get the ip from the proxy, not yours)
Use a bouncer to connect to IRC networks, in case you don't trust the administrators, or the other users. A bouncer is a program that sits on a permanently connected machine that allows you to connect there, and from there to the irc server, just like a proxy works for webservers.
Use anonymous remailers to send out your e-mails.
Cryptography can also help you by making sure the material you send out the web, like by email, etc, is cyphered, not allowing anyone that doesn't have your key to read it (in key-based cryptography). Programs like PGP (pretty good privacy) are toolkits with all you need to cypher and uncypher your stuff.
Delete traces of your work with the computer including history files, cache or backup files.
[ about proxies ]
Proxies are caches that relay data. When you configure your web browser to use a proxy, it never connects to the URL. Instead it always connects to the proxy server, and asks it to get the URL for you. It works similarly with other type of services such as IRC, ICQ etc. There'll won't be direct connection between you and the server, so your real IP address won't be revealed to the server. When you view a website on the server, the server won't see your IP. Some of web proxies do not support forwarding of the cookies whose support is required by some of the websites (for ex. Hotmail).

Here are some anonymous proxies that you can use to surf anonymously (notice that some of these may be a payed service):

Aixs - http://aixs.net/
Rewebber - http://www.anon.de/
Anonymizer - http://www.anonymizer.com/
The Cloak - http://www.the-cloak.com/

You'll highly probably find many websites that provide the lists of unauthorised proxies and remailers . Such lists are being compiled usually with the help of port scanners or exploit scanners, scanning for computers with wingate or other proxies' backdoors. Using these proxies is illegal, and is being considered as unauthorized access of computer. If you get such list to your hands, check if the info is legal or compiled by script kiddie, and act acordingly.

If you anyhow decide not to use proxy, at least do not forget to remove your personal information from your browser. After you remove details like your name and e-mail address from your browser, the only info a Web site can sniff out is your ISP's address and geographical location. Also Java and JavaScript applets can take control of your browser unexpectedly, and if you are surfing to unknown and potentially dangerous places you should be aware of that. There are exploitable browser bugs (mainly Internet explorer ones) reported ever week.

[ cookies ]
Maybe you're not aware of the fact that if you have the "allow cookies" feature in your browser on, websites can store all sorts of information on your harddrive. Cookies are small files that contain various kind of information that can be read bt websites when you visit them. The usual usage is to track demographics for advertising agencies that want to see just what kinds of consumers a certain site is attracting. Web sites also use cookies to keep your account information up-to-date. Then for instance when you visit your e-mail webbased account without being unlogged some hours later, you find yourself being logged on, even if you turn off your computer. Your login and password was simply stored on your harddrive in cookie file. This is security threat, in case that there is more persons who have the access to your computer.

Most of the browsers offer the possiblity to turn off the cookies, but some of sites like Hotmail.com require them to be turned on. In case you decided to allow cookies, at least never forget to log off from the websites when you're finishing visiting them.

[ ftp transfers ]
When using an FTP client program to download files, assure yourself, that it's giving a bogus password, like guest@unknown.com, not your real one. If your browser lets you, turn off the feature that sends your e-mail address as a password for anonymous FTP sessions.

[ secure transaction ]
Everything being sent from the web server to your browser is usually in plain text format. That means, all transferred information can be easily sniffed on the route. Some of the web servers support SSL (which stands for Secure Socket Layer). To view and use these websites you'll need SSL support in your browser as well. You recognize, that the connection is encrypted, if URL starts with https:// instead of usual http://. Never use web server without SSL for sending or receiving sensitive private or business information (credit card numbers, passwords etc.)

[ SSL tunelling ]
What is SSL?

SSL stands for Secure Socket Layer. The ?Secure? implies an encryption, while Socket Layer denotes an addition to the Window Socket system, Winsock. For those that don?t know, a Socket is an attachment to a port on a system. You can have many sockets on one port, providing they are non-blocking (allowing control to pass through to another socket aware application which wishes to connect to that port).

A Secure Socket Layer means that any sockets under it, are both secure and safe. The idea behind SSL was to provide an encrypted, and thus, secure route for traffic along a socket based system, such as TCP/IP (the internet protocol). Doing this allows security in credit card transactions on the Internet, encrypted and protected communiqué along a data line, and overall peace of mind.

The SSL uses an encryption standard developed by RSA. RSA are a world respected American organisation that specializes in encryption and data security. Initially, they developed a cipher length of only 40 bits, for use with the Secure Socket Layer, this was considered weak and therefore a longer much more complicated encryption cipher was created, 128 bits. The reasoning behind it was simple: it needs to be secure.

The RSA site puts the advantage of a longer encryption length pretty clearly: because 40-bit encryption is considered to be relatively weak. 128-bits is about 309 septillion times ( 309,485,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 ) larger than 40-bits. This would mean it would take that many times longer to crack or break 128-bit encryption than it would 40-bit.

If you want more information on the technicalities or RSA?s SSL encryption engine, visit their site: http://www.rsasecurity.com/standards/ssl.

But what does all this encryption and security have to do with you?

Well, that?s a simple question. No matter how hard you try, at times your privacy will need to be knowingly invaded so you can make use of the product offered for doing so. If you think about food, for example, one cannot eat without swallowing. When we wish to make a transaction or view a site on the internet, where we have to give enough information away so that it happens, we also want to be assured no one else along the line gathers that data. An encrypted session would mean our data is not at the hands of any privacy perpetrators unless they knew how to decode it ? and the only ones in the know, are those you specifically wish. SSL uses public key encryption as explained in the PGP section.

To put this at a head: if you use an encrypted connection or session, you can be relatively assured that there are no prying eyes along the way.

And how do I implement SSL with SSL Tunnelling?

We know that a Secure Socket Layer is safe, but what we don?t know is what a Tunnel is. In the most simplistic form, a tunnel is a proxy. Like proxy voting in general elections, a tunnel will relay your data back and forth for you. You may be aware though, that there are already ?proxies? out there, and yes, that is true. Tunnelling is done via proxies, but it is not considered to be the same as a standard proxy relaying simply because it isn?t.

Tunnelling is very special kind of proxy relay, in that it can, and does relay data without interfering. It does this transparently and without grievance or any care for what is passing its way.

Now, if we add this ability to ?tunnel? data, any data, in a pipe, to the Secure Sockets Layer, we have a closed connection that is independent of the software carrying it; and something that is also encrypted. For those of you wanting to know a little more about the technicalities, the SSL layer is also classless in the sense it does not interferer with the data passed back and forth ? after all, it is encrypted and impossible to tamper with. That attribute means an SSL capable proxy is able to transfer data out of its ?proxied? connection to the destination required.

So to sum up, we have both a secure connection that does the job and relays things in the right direction; and we have direct tunnel that doesn?t care what we pass through it. Two very useful, and almost blind entities. All we need now is a secure proxy that we can use as the tunnel.

Proxies:

Secure proxies are alike standard proxies. We can either use an HTTP base SSL equipped proxy - one specifically designed for security HTTP traffic, but because of the ignorant nature of SSL communication, it can be bent to any needs ? or we can use a proper SSL service designed for our connection ? like you would use a secure NNTP (news) program with a secure proxy on port 563 instead of taking our long way - which would probably work as well.

A secure HTTP proxy operates on port 443. Host proxies are not public, that means they operate for, and allow only traffic from their subnet or the ISP that operates them ? but, there are many badly configured HTTP proxies and some public ones out there. The use of a program called HTTrack (available on Neworder) will aid you in scanning and searching for proxies on your network or anywhere on the Internet if your ISP does not provide you with one.

Neworder also features a number of sites dedicated to listing public proxies in the Anonymity section. While it?s often hard to find a suitable fast proxy, it?s worth the effort when you get one.

So how can I secure my connections with SSL Tunnelling?

That?s a big question, and beyond the scope out this tuition as it must come to and end. I can however, point you in the right direction of two resources that will aid you in tunnelling both IRC, and most other connections via a HTTP proxy.

For Windows, the first stop would be http://www.totalrc.net?s Socks2HTTP. This is an SSL tunnelling program that turns a normal socks proxy connection into a tunnelled SSL connection.

The second stop, for both Windows and Unix is stunnel. Stunnel is a GNU kit developed for SSL tunnelling any connection. It is available for compile and download as binary here: Stunnel homepage - http://mike.daewoo.com.pl/computer/stunnel

[ anonymity on irc ]
A BNC, or a Bouncer - is used in conjunction with IRC as a way of hiding your host when people /whois you. On most IRC networks, your host isnt masked when you whois, meaning the entire IP appears, like 194.2.0.21, which can be resolved. On other networks, your host might be masked, like IRCnetwork-0.1 but it can still give valuable information, like nationality if your host is not a IP, but a DNS resolved host, like my.host.cn would be masked to IRCnetwork-host.cn but this would still tell the person who whoised you, that you are from China.

To keep information such as this hidden from the other users on an IRC network, many people use a Bouncer, which is actually just a Proxy. Let us first draw a schematic of how a normal connection would look, with and without a BNC installed.

Without a BNC:

your.host.cn <<-->> irc.box.sk

With a BNC:

your.host.cn <<-->> my.shell.com <<-->> irc.box.sk

You will notice the difference between the two. When you have a BNC installed, a shell functions as a link between you and the IRC server (irc.box.sk as an example). You install a BNC on a shell, and set a port for it to listen for connections on. You then login to the shell with your IRC client, BitchX/Xchat/mIRC, and then it will login to the IRC server you specify - irc.box.sk in this case. In affect, this changes your host, in that it is my.shell.com that makes all the requests to irc.box.sk, and irc.box.sk doesn't know of your.host.cn, it has never even made contact with it.

In that way, depending on what host your shell has, you can login to IRC with a host like i.rule.com, these vhosts are then actually just an alias for your own machine, your.host.cn, and it is all completely transparent to the IRC server.

Many servers have sock bots that check for socket connections. These aren't BNC connections, and BNC cannot be tested using a simple bot, unless your shell has a socket port open (normally 1080) it will let you in with no problem at all, the shell is not acting as a proxy like you would expect, but more as a simple IRC proxy, or an IRC router. In one way, the BNC just changes the packet and sends it on, like:

to: my.shell.com -> to: irc.box.sk -> to: my.shell.com from: your.host.cn <- from: my.shell.com <- from: irc.box.sk

The BNC simply swaps the host of your packet, saying it comes from my.shell.com. But also be aware, that your own machine is perfectly aware that it has a connection established with my.shell.com, and that YOU know that you are connected to irc.box.sk. Some BNCs are used in IRC networks, to simulate one host. If you had a global IRC network, all linked together, you could have a local server called: cn.myircnetwork.com which Chinese users would log into. It would then Bounce them to the actual network server, in effect making all users from china have the same host - cn.myircnetwork.com, masking their hosts. Of course, you could change the host too - so it didn't reveal the nationality, but it is a nice gesture of some networks, that they mask all hosts from everyone, but it makes life hard for IRCops on the network - but its a small price to pay for privacy.

Note: Even if you do use IRC bouncer, within DCC transfers or chat, your IP will be revealed, because DCC requires direct IP to IP connection. Usual mistake of IRC user is to have DCC auto-reply turned on. For an attacker is then easy to DCC chat you or offer you a file, and when IRC clients are connected, he can find out your IP address in the list of his TCP/IP connections (netstat).

How do I get IRC bouncer?

you download and install bouncer software, or get someone to install it for you (probably the most known and best bouncer available is BNC, homepage : http://gotbnc.com/)
you configure and start the software - in case it's bouncer at Unix machine, you start it on your shell account (let's say shell.somewhere.com)
you open IRC and connect to the bouncer at shell.somewhere.com on the port you told it to start on.
all depending on the setup, you may have to tell it your password and tell it where to connect, and you're now on irc as shell.somewhere.com instead of your regular hostname
[ mail crypto ]
Usually the safest way to ensure that your e-mail won't be read by unauthorised persons is to encrypt them. To be compatible with the rest of the world I'd suggest to use free PGP software.

PGP (Pretty Good Privacy) is a piece of software, used to ensure that a message/file has not been changed, has not been read, and comes from the person you think it comes from. Download location: http://www.pgpi.org/

How does pgp Work?

The whole idea behind PGP is that of Public and Private keys. To explain the algorithm PGP uses in order to encrypt the message would take too much time, and is beyond the scope of this, we will however look at how it ensures the integrity of the document. A user has a password, this password has to be chosen correctly, so don't choose passwords like "pop" or "iloveyou", this will make an attack more likely to succeed. The password is used to create a private key, and a public key - the algorithm ensures that you can not use the public key to make the private key. The public key is sent to a server, or to the people you send e-mails/files, and you keep the private key secret.

We will use a few terms and people in this introduction, they are: Pk - Public Key, Sk - Secret Key (private key). Adam will send an e-mail to Eve, and Rita will be a person in between, who we are trying to hide the content of the mail from. Rita will intercept the email (PGP doesn't ensure that Rita cant get her hands on the package, she can - its not a secure line like other technologies) and try to read it/modify it. Adam has a Sk1 and a Pk1, and Eve has a Sk2 and a Pk2. Both Adam, Eve, and Rita have Pk1 and Pk2, but Sk1 and Sk2 are presumed to be totally secret. First, here is a schematic of how it all looks:

PUBLIC SERVER
Pk1, Pk2

Adam <------------------------------------------> Eve Sk1 ^ Sk2
|
|
|
|
Rita

So Adam wants to send a packet to Eve, without Rite reading it, or editing it. There are three things that we need to make sure:

That Rita cant read the text without permission

That Rita cant edit it in any way, without Eve and Adam knowing

That Even knows that Adam sent it

First thing is making sure Rita cant read the text. Adam does this by encrypting the message with Eves Pk2 which he has found on the server. You can only Encrypt with the Pk, not decrypt, so Rita wont be able to read the data unless Eve has revealed her Sk2.

The second thing to make sure, is that Rite cant edit the message. Adam creates a hash from the message he has created. The hash can be encrypted using Pk2, or sent as it is. When Eve gets the message, she decrypts it, and creates a hash herself, then checks if the hashes are the same - if they are, the message is the same, if its different, something has changed in the message. The Hash is very secure, and it is in theory impossible to make a change, and get the hash to remain the same.

The third, and probably one of the most important things to ensure, is that Rita hasn't grabbed the mail, made a new one, and sent it in Adams name. We can ensure this by using Public key and Private key too. The Sk can be used both to encrypt and to decrypt, but Pk can only encrypt. When Adam normally sends a message M to Eve, he creates the encrypted message C by doing: C=Pk2(M). This means, Adam uses Pk2 (Eves Pk) on message M to create message C. Image this: Adam can encrypt the message with his Sk1, because it is impossible to derive Sk1 from the message, this is secure and without any danger, as long as no one knows the password used to make Sk1 with. If the message M is encrypted with Sk1, he gets a message called X, Eve can decrypt the message using Pk1 which is public. If the message decrypts to something that makes sence, then it must be from Adam, because Sk1 is considered as secret, and only Adam knows it.

The entire process looks like this, when sending message C: Adam signs his digital signature on C, and hashes C: X=Sk1(C). Then Adam encrypts the message for Eve: M=Pk2(X). The message is sent, and looks all in all like this: M=Pk2(Sk1(C)). Rita can intercept M, but not decrypt, edit, or resend it. Eve receives M, and decrypts it: X=Sk2(M). Then she checks the digital signature: C=Pk1(X) and checks the Hash on the way.

This way, the PGP Public/Private key system ensures integrity and security of the document e-mail, but PGP is not the only algorithm that uses the Public/Private key theory, Blowfish, and RSA are among the many other technologies that use it, PGP is just the most popular for e-mail encryption, but many don't trust it because of rumors of backdoors by the NSA (I don't know if its true though). PGP comes in a commercial, and a freeware version for Windows, and is available for Linux as well. What ever encryption you use, it will be better than none.

[ anonymous remailers ]
Remailers are programs accessible on the Internet that route email and USENET postings anonymously (i.e., the recipient cannot determine who sent the email or posted the article). This way the sender can't be traced back by routing headers included in the e-mail. There are different classes of remailers, which allow anonymous exchange of email and anonymous posting to USENET and often many other useful features.

Resources:

Chain is a menu-driven remailer-chaining script:
http://www.obscura.com/crypto.html

Raph Levien's remailer availability page offers comprehensive information about the subject
http://www.sendfakemail.com/~raph/remailer-list.html

The Cypherpunks Remailers are being developed to provide a secure means of providing anonymity on the nets. Here you can find out about the available remailers, those which have been standard in existance for a long time as well as the new experimental remailers and anonymous servers.
http://www.csua.berkeley.edu/cypherpunks/remailer/

[ icq privacy ]
How can I keep my privacy at ICQ?

Send and receive messages via ICQ server, not directly. Every direct connection enables attacker to learn your IP. Encrypt your messages by dedicated software, encryption addons.

How to encrypt ICQ messages?

There are addons which enhance your ICQ with possibility to encrypt outcoming messages. The user on the other side needs to have the addon as well in order to decrypt your message.

Resources:

http://www.encrsoft.com/products/tsm.html
Top Secret Messenger (TSM) - trial version has only weak 8-bit encryption

http://www.planet-express.com/sven/technical/dev/chatbuddy/default.html
Chat Buddy - a freeware Windows application for encrypting chat sessions

http://www.algonet.se/~henisak/icq/encrypt-v5.txt
how encryption works in ICQ protocol v5

[ spyware ]
As we all work hard to become more savvy about protecting our personal information and keeping as anonymous as possible on the web, advertising companies are working just as hard to come up with new ways of getting our personal information. One of the ways they accomplish this is through spyware.

Spyware are applications that are bundled along with many programs that you download for free. Their function is to gather personal information about you and relay it back to advertising firms. The information is then used either to offer you products or sold to other advertisers, so they can promote THEIR products. They claim this is all they do with this information, but the problem is nobody really knows for sure.

Spyware fits the classic definition of a trojan, as it is something that you did not bargain for+when you agreed to download the product. Not only is spyware an invasion of your privacy, but (especially if you have a few different kinds on your machine) it can also chew up bandwidth, making your internet connection slower.

Sometimes, these spies really are harmless, merely connecting back to the home server to deliver+you more advertising. Some, like Gator for instance, send out detailed information about your surfing habits, operating system, income, age demographic et cetera.

Avoiding spyware

Avoiding spyware is getting harder and harder, as more software distributors are choosing it as a method of profiting from freeware and shareware distributions. Be leery of programs with cute+little icons like Gator. Also, watch those Napster wannabes like AudioGalaxy, Limewire, and Kazaa. I've yet to find one that didn't include spyware. Before you download, check to see if the program is known to contain spyware.

For a list of most known spyware, the best I've found is here:
http://www.infoforce.qc.ca/spyware/enknownlistfrm.html

Getting rid of spyware

In most cases, you can remove the spyware from your system and still use the application you downloaded. In the case of Gator and Comet Cursor, the the whole program is spyware an it must be completely removed to stop the spying.

There are several ways to get rid of spyware on your system. You can use a firewall to monitor outgoing connections. The programmers that put these things together, however, are getting sneakier and sneakier about getting them to circumvent firewalls. Comet Cursor, for instance uses an HTTP post command to connect without the intervention of a firewall. You can also install a registry monitor such as Regmon to monitor your registry for unwanted registry registry changes, but this is not foolproof either.

Probably the best method of removal is to download a spyware removal program and run it like it was a virus scanner. The best examples of these programs are:
Lavasoft's Adaware. Available at http://www.lavasoftusa.com/ Or professional cybernut Steve Gibson's OptOut. Available at: http://grc.com/optout.htm Both of these programs are free and are updated regularly.

Here are some links, if you wish to learn more about spyware:
http://www.spychecker.com/
http://grc.com/optout.htm
http://www.thebee.com/bweb/iinfo200.htm

[ cleaning tracks ]
Resources:

Burnt Cookies - allows automatic detection and optional deletion of Cookies deposited by Banner Ad web-sites
http://www.andersson-design.com/bcookies/index.shtml

Surfsecret - automatically kills files like your Internet cache files, cookies, history, temporary files, recent documents, and the contents of the Recycle Bin.
http://www.surfsecret.com/

Note: One sidenote on cleaning tracks. When you delete some files on your machine, these aren't actually deleted. Only the reference to their location in the hard drive is deleted, which makes the OS think that that location on the HD is free and ready to take things. Thus, there are ways to recover data even after you delete them.

There are however, several ways to _wipe_ this information. Programs that fill hard disk locations with zeros, then with 1s, on several passes are your best bet to make sure no document goes to the wrong hands. One of such programs is PGP. PHPi now comes with a utility that does this work, and you can even select the number of passes to wipe files. For *nix, there is also the "wipe" program. Use these when you feel you have data that needs secure cleaning.